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CaptObvious

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  1. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: George Washington’s escape across the Delaware
    On this day in 1776, American forces complete an escape across the Delaware River. It was just the latest in a long string of retreats from the British army. Surely George Washington was beginning to get tired of it all?
      If only he and his men could have known that the miraculous victory at Trenton was just around the corner.
        Mere weeks before, a few thousand Americans had been trapped and forced to surrender at Ft. Washington, close to Manhattan. At the time, Washington was across the river with the rest of his army. Americans had already surrendered Long Island and New York City. Now Washington would have to leave, yet again. The American army was forced into a lengthy and demoralizing retreat across New Jersey.
      The army’s trek was difficult, particularly because of the lack of supplies. One soldier later said: “The sufferings we endured are beyond description—no tent to cover us at night—exposed to cold and rains day and night.”
      Interestingly, Thomas Paine, author of Common Sense, was serving as a civilian aide in the army and was present during the retreat. He wrote of his impressions: “These are the times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman.”
      The British briefly caught up to the Americans at Brunswick, but the Americans again retreated. Washington and his men marched through the night and arrived in Trenton, on the banks of the Delaware on December 2. Washington ordered that any boat on the east side of the Delaware be destroyed, except for those to be used by the American army. Inexplicably, British General Cornwallis—still in Brunswick—had called his troops to a halt. For six days, the British troops remained where they were before beginning their pursuit, again, on December 7.
      Washington soon received word that the British were headed toward Trenton. By the night of December 7, Washington and his army were retreating across the difficult waters of the Delaware River. By the next morning, they were standing safely on the Pennsylvanian shore, having used the only boats to be found for miles. (They had successfully destroyed all boats for 60 miles along the eastern side of the Delaware.)
      Charles Wilson Peale saw the army after they’d landed on the morning of December 8. He saw one man “in an old dirty blanket jacket, his beard long, and his face so full of sores that he could not clean it.” Peale was looking at his own brother and did not know it.
  2. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: The Girl Who Saved the Revolution
    On this day in 1764, a heroine is born in Virginia. Susanna Bolling would go on to perform a little-known feat that helped George Washington’s army win the American Revolution. She’s been called the “Girl Who Won the Revolutionary War.”
      Susanna was just 16 years old at the time.
      She surely had no idea what was in store for her when British General Charles Cornwallis arrived at her family’s plantation during May 1781. Cornwallis demanded shelter, and he and his men stayed at the plantation overnight.
        It was a scene that was repeated far too often in America’s fight for independence: British redcoats would arrive at a home, confronting mothers and daughters left behind as their husbands, fathers, sons, and brothers went to war. The Redcoats demanded shelter—or information about family members who had left to join the militia.
      In this case, Cornwallis demanded food and a place for his men to stay. He must have gotten cocky because he spoke too freely in front of the Bolling women. He had big plans for the next day: He intended to track down the Marquis de Lafayette at the Half Way House, which was between Richmond and Petersburg. Lafayette was one of Washington’s most trusted officers, and Cornwallis intended to capture him.
      It could be the beginning of the end for Washington’s army, and Susanna knew what she had to do.
      The young girl used an underground tunnel to sneak out of her home. The tunnel took her straight to the family’s dock on the Appomattox River. Once there, she took a canoe and paddled her way across the river. It was risky! If she were too noisy, she’d give herself away.
      Upon reaching the other side of the river, she borrowed a neighbor’s horse and rode as quickly as she could to warn Lafayette.
      Amazingly, she not only found him in time, but she returned home before her absence was discovered. Her warning enabled Lafayette to get away.
      Indeed, Lafayette would go on to play a game of “cat-and-mouse” as the Virginia legislature would later say, with Cornwallis’s army. Because of Lafayette, Cornwallis and his men were trapped in Yorktown by September 1781.
      And the rest, of course, is history. George Washington’s army would hold Cornwallis under siege at Yorktown, ultimately winning the American fight for independence.
      Would any of it have been possible without the brave young teenager?
      Every person, every effort, always makes a difference—especially when you are fighting for liberty.
  3. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: George Washington’s final farewell to the Army
    On this day in 1783, George Washington says his final goodbye to a group of officers at Fraunces Tavern in New York.
      New York had served as the British headquarters throughout the long years of the American Revolution. It was the last city to be evacuated when the war was over! On November 25, however, the British finally left, and George Washington entered the city.
      Despite the celebrations and elaborate dinners that ensued over the course of the next week, the British hadn’t entirely left the area. Some lingered on boats nearby. Others were still on Staten and Long Islands. They were waiting for the weather to clear sufficiently for a voyage across the Atlantic, and they were waiting for sufficient transports. Even as the celebrations continued, Washington waited for this final departure.
      One of his biographers explains: “Not an hour would Washington remain in New York, as Commander-in-Chief, beyond the time all danger of a clash of arms had ended.”
      On December 1, British Sir Guy Carleton wrote to Washington: “Wind and weather permitting, I hope that the Embarkation of such of his Majesty’s Troops as yet remain on Long Island and Staten Island may be completed [by December 4].”
      Surely Washington was thrilled to receive the letter! He was always aching to return to his beloved Mount Vernon. A farewell to his officers was scheduled for noon on December 4 at Fraunces Tavern.
      The meeting was not exceptionally large, with fewer than 30 officers gathered. Importantly, the head of Washington’s secret Culper Spy Ring, Benjamin Tallmadge, was in the room that day. He later wrote of the experience:
      “We had been assembled but a few moments, when His Excellency entered the room. His emotion, too strong to be concealed, seemed to be reciprocated by every officer present. After partaking of a slight refreshment, in almost breathless silence, the General filled his glass with wine, and turning to the officers, he said: ‘With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable.’” He concluded, “I cannot come to each of you, but shall feel obliged if each of you will come and take me by the hand.”
      Historian Thomas Fleming has offered an alternative explanation for the strong emotions that day: There had been a fair amount of dispute regarding soldiers’ pay in recent months. Was Washington simply upset that he’d failed to get more for his men? Was he leaving on a note of regret?
      Either way, the tears apparently flowed freely after Washington’s short speech. Henry Knox was the closest to Washington. Tallmadge again reports that Washington “suffused in tears, was incapable of utterance, but grasped [Knox’s] hand; when they embraced each other in silence. In the same affectionate manner, every officer in the room marched up to, kissed, and parted with his General-in-Chief.”
      After this solemn farewell, Washington went down to the wharf where a barge was waiting for him. He was leaving the city, but he would soon appear before the Continental Congress to resign his commission.
      The war was over. Our independence was won.
  4. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: Jockey Hollow, the "other Valley Forge"
    On this day in 1779, George Washington’s troops move into winter quarters near Morristown, New Jersey. Their long, difficult stay at Jockey Hollow has been called “the other Valley Forge.”
     
    Valley Forge makes our history books, yet Jockey Hollow doesn’t. Nevertheless, many soldiers thought Jockey Hollow was the more miserable of the two.
      A mural from the Jockey Hollow Visitor's Center depicts soldiers trying to stay warm. “Those who have only been in Valley Forge and Middlebrook during the last two winters,” Major General Johann Kalb wrote, “but have not tasted the cruelties of this one, know not what it is to suffer.”
      The stay in Jockey Hollow coincided with perhaps the coldest winter on record.
      “During one winter only in recorded American meteorological history,” historian David Ludlum writes, “have all the salt-water inlets, harbors, and sounds of the Atlantic coastal plain, from North Carolina northeastward, frozen over and remained closed to navigation for the period of a full month and more. This occurred during what has ever since been called, ‘The Hard Winter of 1780.’”
      Unfortunately, the cold winter coincided with a financial crisis. “The money depreciates so fast no body will trust the [Continental dollar] One day,” an officer wrote Quartermaster-General Nathanael Greene. “A hat costs four hundred dollars,” Kalb wrote in disbelief.
      Obviously, the financial situation complicated the purchase of food and supplies—and the weather was getting colder and colder. By January, Col. Timothy Matlack was able to write that the “ink now freezes in my pen within five feet of the fire in my parlour, at 4 o‘clock in the afternoon.”
      The men built log cabins from trees in the area, but food was becoming harder and harder to find. “I do solemnly declare that I did not put a single morsel of victuals into my mouth for four days and as many nights, except a little black birch bark which I gnawed off a stick of wood, if that can be called victuals,” Soldier Joseph Plumb Martin wrote. “I saw several of the men roast their old shoes and eat them, and I was afterwards informed by one of the officers’ waiters, that some of the officers killed and ate a favourite little dog that belonged to one of them.”
      By January, the soldiers had begun raiding nearby farms. Washington was unhappy, but he didn’t seem to have the heart to put a complete end to it, either.
      “They have been some times without Bread, some times without meat, at no time with much of either, and often without both,” Washington wrote Jonathan Trumbull. “They have borne their distress . . . but they have been at last brought to such a dreadful extremity, that no authority or influence of the officers no virtue or patience in the men themselves could any longer restrain them from obeying the dictates of their sufferings.”
      Washington sometimes obtained temporary relief from local magistrates, but the food never lasted long. Instead, the months dragged on and on, with the snow continuing even into April. By May, a brigade of Connecticut soldiers threatened mutiny. Fortunately, a brigade of loyal Pennsylvania troops convinced the potential mutineers to return to their huts. Food arrived soon afterwards, and disaster was averted.
      Washington pardoned the ringleaders of the near-mutiny. He surely knew how taxing the winter had been. “[T]here are certain bounds beyond which it is impossible for human nature to go,” Washington concluded to Trumbull.
      The army finally emerged from its winter quarters in June. Amazingly, Washington had held his men together through these long, difficult months.
      Yet another untold story of how our Founders sacrificed that we might have freedom.
  5. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: John F. Kennedy’s assassination and the toll on Jackie
    On this day in 1963, President John F. Kennedy is shot and killed in Dallas, Texas.
      You’ve heard the story many times, and you know the many controversies surrounding the story of JFK’s assassination. But do you know what happened to Jackie Kennedy in the days and weeks after his death?
      The First Lady was there when the President was killed, of course. She famously stood next to Lyndon B. Johnson when he took the presidential oath of office on Air Force One. She was still wearing the blood-stained pink suit that she’d been wearing all day.
      “I want them to see what they have done to Jack,” she told Lady Bird Johnson.
        When Jackie returned home, she was immediately confronted with many decisions, both big and small. For one thing, JFK’s funeral had to be planned. Jackie decided that he should be buried in Arlington National Cemetery, not in Massachusetts. “He belongs to the people,” she said. She arranged for an eternal flame to be lit near JFK’s grave.
      Jackie was still grieving an infant son who had died that summer. She arranged for Patrick Kennedy’s body to be moved to Arlington, next to his father. She also moved their little daughter, Arabella, who had been stillborn in 1956.
      How heart-wrenching to watch those two little caskets join the larger one for their father?
      But her living children needed attention, too. Little John’s 3rd birthday was on the same day as his father’s funeral. Caroline’s 6th birthday occurred only two days later. They had been attending school in the White House, but now they would no longer be allowed to live there. What were they to do?
      Lady Bird offered to keep the school open, at least for a little while.
      Jackie also had to choose a new home, of course. She settled on a place in Georgetown, but it must have been hard to find solace there. Throngs of reporters and well-wishers were always gathering outside her front door, and the drapes had to be kept closed so no one could see the grieving family inside.
      In the meantime, Jackie felt responsible for preserving JFK’s legacy and influencing what historians would say about him. One week after his death, she called a reporter from Life magazine. She wanted him to write an article. When the reporter arrived, she spoke for hours. “She wanted to make certain that Jack was not forgotten in history,” the reporter later said.
      Jackie told the reporter a story of an old song that she said JFK loved. The song concluded with the line: “Don’t let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief, shining moment that was known as Camelot.”
      The Life article appeared a week later. As you know, the Camelot analogy stuck.
      But there was still more. Decisions kept confronting Jackie. Who should write the authoritative account of the JFK’s assassination? What should she say to the Warren Commission? Maybe worse, she had to listen to constant speculation about who had killed her husband.
      “[W]hat did it matter what they found out?” she said. “They could never bring back the person who was gone.”
      Throughout all this time, as one historian speculates, she may have been suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder. She would stay up late, crying and drinking.  She relived the critical moments over and over in her head. Could she have pushed the President out of the way? She considered suicide, but knew that her children needed her.  She smoked compulsively.
      For a while, the brave face that she presented to the public was exactly that—a brave face. It would be many years before she ever really set her life to rights again.
      Although maybe she never really felt that she did? As she told the Life magazine reporter in 1963: “There’ll never be another Camelot.”
     
     
     
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  6. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: Covert operations & the American Revolution
    On this day in 1775, Americans take an important step in their fight against Great Britain: The Continental Congress establishes the Committee of Correspondence. Such a dry-sounding name for what would soon follow: secret midnight meetings, covert operations, and even a fake merchant company providing cover to France and Spain!
      Perhaps you won’t be surprised to hear that the Committee earned a new name almost immediately: the Committee of *Secret* Correspondence.
        Committee member Benjamin Franklin was soon knee-deep in intrigue. A French secret agent set up a meeting with him through an intermediary. Julien-Alexandre Achard de Bonvouloir was supposed to collect information about Americans and their fledgling revolution.
      Franklin and a few others met with Bonvouloir in the days before Christmas 1775.
      Was Bonvouloir working for the British Secret Service? Franklin was suspicious. Over the course of several meetings, however, he became convinced that Bonvouloir was actually working for the French government—although the Frenchman steadfastly refused to admit it. Franklin began speaking more freely, and the meetings laid the groundwork for France’s eventual agreement to aid the Americans.
      “Everyone here is a soldier,” Bonvouloir reported to the French Foreign Minister on December 28, “the troops are well clothed, well paid and well armed. They have more than 50,000 regular soldiers and an even larger number of volunteers who do not wish to be paid. Judge how men of this caliber will fight. They are more powerful than we could have thought . . . . Nothing shocks or frightens them, you can count on that.”
      Hmm. 50,000 regular troops, well clothed and well paid?! It was a rather rosy report, to say the least. Some historians have speculated that Benjamin Franklin purposefully exaggerated the size of the army when he spoke with Bonvouloir. Others wonder if Bonvouloir was misled by some of the overly optimistic news reports then circulating in Philadelphia.
      Either way, the Frenchman filed an erroneous report—and the French minister believed it. What a blessing! That report would contribute to King Louis XVI’s decision to help the American effort. He surreptitiously provided one million livres, funding a front company known as Hortalez & Cie. Spain also provided funding. Hortalez & Cie would provide weapons and other supplies to the Americans, even as France and Spain pretended to be neutral.
      Secret committees? Midnight meetings? Front companies posing as international merchants, thus enabling Kings to pretend neutrality in the midst of intrigue and conspiracy?
      Just another side to our American Revolution that your history textbooks forgot to teach you.
     
  7. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: Samuel Nicholas, First Commandant of the Marines
    On this day in 1775, a Philadelphia tavern owner is commissioned as commanding officer of the newly formed Marines. Samuel Nicholas received his commission only 18 days after the Continental Congress passed a resolution requiring that “two Battalions of Marines be raised” to support the recently organized Continental Navy.
      The day of that original resolution — November 10 — is celebrated as the birthday of the United States Marine Corps.
        An ink drawing shows Nicholas presenting his Marines at the hoisting of the Gadsden flag. Nicholas was another “Fighting Quaker”! He was the son of a blacksmith, but he’d worked his way up in society a bit. By the time the war started, he was a tavern owner and founder of the Gloucester Fox Hunting Club. He also belonged to an exclusive club called the Schuylkill Fishing Company. Because of his background, he had friends and connections in many classes of Philadelphia society. It was thought that he’d be the perfect person to recruit the tough guys who would be needed as Marines.
      He could definitely recruit. He raised five companies of men in a relatively short period of time. In fact, it proved harder to get supplies than men. Nevertheless, he and his Marines were soon deployed on their first mission in the Bahamas. The operation was successful, and Nicholas hoped to be sent on more missions with his men. He didn’t get his wish. Instead, he got a promotion that basically ensured that he’d be stuck performing administrative tasks.
      Nicholas spent the summer and fall of 1776 recruiting more Marines. In December, he got his wish for more action, at least for a little bit. He and three Marine companies joined George Washington, then retreating from the British army. (Americans had just been driven from New York.) Washington, it seems, wasn’t quite sure what to do with the Marines. He asked whether “they came out resolved to act upon Land or meant to confine their Services to the Water only.”
      In the end, the Marines were asked to row Continental soldiers across the Delaware River before the Battle of Trenton. They did not engage in that attack, but they were involved in the actual fighting at the Battle of Princeton one week later. The Marines with Nicholas were involved in a few more skirmishes during the following months, but Nicholas later returned to Philadelphia to resume his administrative duties. He was trusted and respected, but he was also apparently frustrated by his role. According to one early 20th century historian, Nicholas wrote of his “mortification” to discover that because of his promotion, he had become a “useless officer, at least in sense of danger.”
      He wanted to be more involved in the actual fighting.
      Nicholas served for almost the entire Revolution before returning to civilian life. He passed away in August 1790 during a yellow fever epidemic. He may have been frustrated with the lack of “danger” in his work, but he at least lived long enough to see America finally gain the freedom for which he had worked so diligently.
     
     
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  8. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: The Pilgrims enjoy a three-day Thanksgiving feast
    On or around this day in 1621, the Pilgrims enjoy a three-day feast! They are grateful for their harvest after a long, hard first year in the New World.
      You already know that the Pilgrims fled England because they feared religious persecution. Their voyage on the Mayflower began in September 1620—and it was a rough one.
        “In many of these storms the winds were so fierce, and the seas so high, as they could not bear a knot of sail, but were forced to heave to for many days together,” the future Governor of the colony later wrote. “And in one [mighty storm] . . . a strapping young man (called John Howland) was, with a lurch of the ship thrown into the sea; but it pleased God that he caught hold of the ropes which hung overboard.”
      Howland was pulled back into the boat and survived.
      Can you imagine how grateful the Pilgrims must have been when they finally arrived in America? Almost all of them had made it—including a baby born during the journey. Unfortunately, the Pilgrims would not be as fortunate in the year that followed.
      They had arrived in the midst of winter: For months, they would face problems on several fronts. How to build shelters? How to get food? How to nurse the many people who were falling ill during the harsh winter months? How to make peace with local Indian tribes? Some of these tasks they accomplished on their own, but they also owed much to an Indian named Squanto. Fortunately for the Pilgrims, Squanto spoke English. (The skill had not come easily for Squanto, who learned the language because he’d spent time in captivity in England.)
      By September 1621, only half of the original 102 Pilgrims had survived, but they’d also learned much about how to live in the New World. They owed a debt of gratitude to Squanto, who taught them how to raise crops in the New England soil and climate. They’d also worked out treaties and were living in peace with many of the local Indian tribes.
      As the first harvest came in, the Pilgrims were surely happy to enjoy a feast with their new Indian friends. They shared deer, ducks, and turkey. A recently harvested barley crop meant that it would have been possible to (finally) brew beer at about this time!
      For many reasons, the feast was welcome after the long, difficult year. But, despite the good meal and happy times, the overall harvest was not as plentiful as you might imagine. Nor was it plentiful the next year. In fact, the Pilgrims were still really struggling until 1623 when their governor, William Bradford, made an interesting decision.
      He changed from a communal system of growing crops to a more private one. Each household was given its own private plot of land. In essence, he changed from a socialist-type system to a more capitalist one.
      “[T]hey began to think how they might raise as much corn as they could,” Bradford later explained, “and obtain a better crop than they had done. . . . And so assigned to every family a parcel of land . . . . This had very good success, for it made all hands very industrious, so as much more corn was planted than otherwise would have been . . . . The women now went willingly into the field, and took their little ones with them to set corn; which before would allege weakness and inability . . . .”
      Historian Nathaniel Philbrick concludes: “The Pilgrims had stumbled on the power of capitalism.” They still faced struggles in the New World, but they never again faced starvation.
      Capitalism! The second half of the Pilgrims’ story, which is rarely discussed these days. Food for thought as you enjoy your Thanksgiving meal.
      Happy Thanksgiving, everyone!
  9. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: North Carolina ratifies the Constitution
    On this day in 1789, North Carolina becomes the 12th state to join the Union. The state was pretty late to the party. By November 1789, George Washington had already been elected to his first term as President and the First Congress had already completed its first session.
      North Carolina had finally gotten what it wanted, though.
      The state’s late ratification of the Constitution stemmed from its concern about the lack of a Bill of Rights. Fortunately for North Carolina, the first Congress had debated and approved a proposed Bill of Rights by the end of September 1789. The way was cleared for North Carolina to join the Union.
        One important (but today relatively unknown) Founder hailed from North Carolina: Hugh Williamson was a doctor, a scientist, and a scholar respected on both sides of the Atlantic. He happened to be in Boston during the Tea Party and was in England immediately afterwards. In England, he wrote an open letter, “The Plea of the Colonies on the Charges Brought Against Them.” The letter explained the colonists’ grievances and later became a well-known pamphlet during the American Revolution.
      Williamson was later appointed as one of North Carolina’s delegates to the Constitutional Convention. He was an active member and contributed often to the discussions. Notably, he expressed concern about a national direct popular election for President. He worried that the small states would be forgotten in such a process.
      “The people will be sure to vote for some man in their own State, and the largest State will be sure to succeed,” he explained in July 1787.
      Williamson returned home and worked toward ratification of the Constitution, but it became apparent that North Carolina would not ratify without a Bill of Rights. On September 25, 1789, North Carolina got its wish. The first U.S. Congress approved twelve amendments to the Constitution. Ten of them would be ratified by the states and would become our Bill of Rights.
      North Carolina was the second-to-last state to join the Union. Rhode Island—then sometimes called Rogue’s Island because of its stubbornness—refused to join the Union until May 1790.
  10. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: The Cuban Missile Crisis
    On this day in 1962, a blockade of Cuba officially comes to an end. Russia and the United States had been teetering on the brink of nuclear war for nearly two weeks during October, but now the Cuban Missile Crisis was officially over.
      “[T]he world came closest to blowing itself up during thirteen days in October 1962,” historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. has described. “Two superpowers overarmed with nuclear weapons challenged each other in what could have spiraled so easily into the ultimate catastrophe.”
      Would the Cuban Missile Crisis have happened without Fidel Castro? He and his guerrillas overthrew President Fulgencio Batista in the late 1950s. Unfortunately, once Castro was in power, relations with the United States became strained and Cuba aligned itself with the Soviet Union.
        Kennedy addressing the nation during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Cold War was then silently being waged, of course, so a Soviet ally in the Western Hemisphere was definitely not welcome. Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy tried—and failed—to oust Castro, but the failed Bay of Pigs invasion that resulted from that effort only made things worse.
      In the meantime, the United States had been establishing missile bases overseas, including one in Turkey. That base was within range of Moscow, which naturally made the Soviets nervous. Their leader, Nikita Khrushchev, began working with Castro to move nuclear missiles to Cuba. He did it secretly, although Castro disagreed with that tactic.
      “We had a sovereign right to accept the missiles,” Castro later said. “We were not violating international law. Why do it secretly—as if we had no right to do it? I warned Nikita that secrecy would hand the imperialists the advantage.”
      Needless to say, things went badly when the United States discovered what was happening.
      On October 14, 1962, American reconnaissance planes spotted the new missile sites in Cuba. Within a few days, the presence of intermediate-range, nuclear-capable missiles was confirmed. The days that followed were tense. Why would the Soviets move missiles so close to the United States? President Kennedy formed a committee—the so-called Ex Comm—that met every day to address the crisis. U.S. carriers were dispatched to form a blockade around Cuba, preventing the delivery of additional missiles. The Soviets began sending submarines instead.
      Making matters worse, Castro shot down an American plane that was flying over Cuba to monitor missile activity. The missile that killed the American pilot had been supplied by the Soviets, although the Soviets had not authorized this particular attack.
      The two superpowers seemed to be on the verge of war.
      Fortunately, the crisis was averted at the last minute. On October 28, Khrushchev and Kennedy reached an agreement. Soviet missiles would be removed from Cuba. In return, the United States agreed not to invade the island. In a secret side agreement, the United States also agreed to remove its missiles from Turkey.
      The calm response of both leaders was invaluable. Kennedy sought to give Khrushchev a graceful way out of the situation. For his part, Khrushchev had ignored some of the crazier suggestions of his own advisors.
      Bobby Kennedy later gave credit to his brother for the peaceful resolution that had been achieved: “The 10 or 12 people who had participated in all these discussions were bright and energetic people. We had perhaps amongst the most able in the country, and if any one of half a dozen of them were President the world would have been very likely plunged into catastrophic war.”
      It had been a narrow escape.
  11. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: The Gettysburg Address
    On this day in 1863, Abraham Lincoln delivers his famous Gettysburg address. Did you know that no one knows exactly where he gave the speech? And no one knows precisely what he said? Several different transcripts of the speech exist, each with slightly different phrasing.
      His speech wasn’t even supposed to be the main feature that day! Instead, a two-hour oration by a former Secretary of State, Edward Everett, was supposed to be the highlight.
      Lincoln’s two-minute speech would go down in history. Everett’s has been mostly forgotten.
      Perhaps Everett saw the writing on the wall? He wrote to the President the very next day, apparently already realizing the impact of Lincoln’s words. “Permit me also to express my great admiration of the thoughts expressed by you,” Everett wrote, “with such eloquent simplicity & appropriateness, at the consecration of the Cemetery. I should be glad, if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes.”
     
    Both men had been slated to speak at a dedication ceremony for Soldiers’ National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Union forces had won a battle there mere months earlier, but that battle had been a brutal, 3-day affair. Fifty-one thousand soldiers had been left dead or wounded.
      It was a costly victory, to say the least.
      Lincoln had prepared remarks, written on a slip of paper. Legend has it that he threw the address together as he rode on a train toward Gettysburg, but he actually spent a bit more time on it than that. By the time he got to the ceremony, he had prepared remarks that he had carefully considered, and he reportedly used them. But here’s the interesting part: Modern scholars aren’t sure which of the five known, still-existing transcripts Lincoln used that day—or potentially he could even have used an unknown, sixth transcript!
      So what are these five known, still-existing transcripts?
      Two are copies that Lincoln gave to his personal secretaries. Three others were written by Lincoln for charitable purposes, but he wrote them well after his November 19 address.
      The version that is most often cited is the transcript that was requested by historian George Bancroft; he intended to use if at a fundraiser for soldiers. The request was fulfilled, but the final transcript was ultimately delivered to Bancroft’s stepson, Colonel Alexander Bliss. The so-called “Bliss copy” is the last known transcript written in Lincoln’s hand.   It is also the only transcript that has his signature.
      In this final text, Lincoln had removed one instance of the word “here,” which is in all other copies of the speech. Historian Garry Wills finds this last omission important: “[Lincoln] was still making such improvements,” He notes. It “suggests that he was more concerned with a perfected text than with an ‘original’ one.”
      The Bliss text is the version that is emblazoned on the Lincoln Monument. It famously concludes:
      “[W]e here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”
  12. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: The Battle of Fort Washington
    On this day in 1776, the British capture Fort Washington. It was the latest in a nearly uninterrupted string of defeats for Americans in and around the New York area. The latest of these had occurred at White Plains.
      After White Plains, George Washington had once again found himself retreating.
      Did he feel like he was always retreating in those days? It must have been discouraging. Also: How miraculous that Washington’s men seemed to be always escaping and living to fight again another day. General Washington’s persistence would eventually win our Revolution.
      After White Plains, Washington expected British General William Howe to pursue and launch another attack, but Howe left the area instead. Where was Howe going? Washington had no idea. Was he headed to New Jersey? Or to Forts Washington and Lee? These two forts were supposed to keep British ships from sailing up the Hudson River.
      Washington wondered if it was worth defending Fort Washington, which had proven relatively ineffective. To Major General Nathanael Greene, Washington observed that he was “inclined to think it will not be prudent to hazard the Men & Stores at Mount Washington.” He did not order an evacuation, however. He left it to Greene’s discretion: “[B]ut as you are on the Spot, [I] leave it to you to give such Orders as to evacuating Mount Washington as you judge best.”


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    https://www.taraross.com/post/tdih-fort-washington Greene responded that he could not “conceive the Garrison to be in any great danger [as] the men can be brought off at any time” to safety. Fort Washington’s commander, Colonel Robert Magaw, was also optimistic, estimating that the fort could withhold a siege, at least through the end of December.
      The matter was debated, again, when Washington traveled to Fort Lee on November 13. Still, no decision was made to evacuate the fort. Washington himself would later question his own indecision on this issue.
      On November 15, Howe sent an emissary to demand surrender of the fort. Magaw refused, saying he was “determined to defend this post to the very last extremity.” Washington STILL did not give an order to evacuate! Instead, he accepted a report that the “Troops were in high Spirits and would make a good Defence.”
      An attack began the next morning. Howe had 8,000 soldiers. By contrast, Magaw was in a bit of an odd position. The fort was intended to hold only 1,200 men, but Magaw had more than 2,800! The fort was too crowded—and yet Magaw was badly outnumbered. One person summarized the dilemma: “We had too few men to oppose the different attacks, and yet, when collected together, too many to garrison the fort.”
      By late afternoon, Magaw was forced into surrender. Most of the American forces were captured. Making matters even worse, the fort had been stocked with much in the way of ammunition, arms, and supplies. The Continental Army needed these provisions! But now they were captured, too. A few days later, the British would take Fort Lee as well. Washington and his army fled into New Jersey, with General Charles Cornwallis hot on his heels.
      Naturally, that is not the end of the story for Washington’s army. Stay tuned for the rest of the story in upcoming weeks!
      P.S. Remember the legend of Molly Pitcher, based in part on Margaret Corbin, the woman who took over her husband’s cannon when he was killed in the middle of a battle? Today’s battle is the one in which she fought. (See January 22 history post)
  13. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: Americans defend Fort Mifflin
    On this day in 1777, Americans evacuate Fort Mifflin. These brave soldiers had held out against the British for several weeks, giving George Washington just what he needed: time to get to Valley Forge.
      British General Sir William Howe had captured Philadelphia mere weeks earlier. It was a victory that left him with a huge problem on his hands: How would he get supplies to the city? He needed to wrest control of the Delaware River from the Americans, which meant driving them from Forts Mifflin and Mercer. One such attempt was made in late October, but Americans rebuffed the attack.
      HMS Asia, a ship similar to the one that would have attached the Americans at Fort Mifflin. Naturally, the British weren’t going to give up that easily. They built up batteries near Fort Mifflin and moved more ships closer to the fort. Finally, a large scale bombardment began on November 10.
     
    Washington had ordered the men at Fort Mifflin to hold out for as long as possible. He needed more time to get away from Howe and to get his army into winter quarters at Valley Forge. The distraction at Fort Mifflin was buying him time. Thus, every night, Americans would work to rebuild their defenses after the day’s bombing. They knew they had to hold out for as long as humanly possible.
     
    On November 12, Washington gave new orders. The fort’s commander had discretion to abandon it when he could hold out no longer. Washington added that “Cannon and Stores ought immediately to be removed” and the last to leave “should set fire to the Barracks and all remaining Buildings.”
     
    The men at the “brave little Garrison” had basically been given permission to leave. But do you know what they did? They stayed anyway. By November 15, the British had surrounded the fort with several ships carrying more than 200 cannons. Reportedly, the British fired 1,000 cannonballs at the fort in just one hour. At least one British ship got so close that its sailors could lob hand grenades into the fort.
     
    All of this power aimed against 400 men and 10 cannon in Fort Mifflin! Despite the overwhelming assault, Americans held out all day before finally facing the need to evacuate.
     
    As they left on the evening of the 15th, the fort’s defenders worked to complicate matters for the British. Forty men stayed behind and set fire to the fort. Reportedly, even as the fort was engulfed in flames, the Americans’ flag still flew high above.
     
    It was another loss that added up to a more important victory: Washington and his army had been given critical time to get to Valley Forge.



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  14. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: George Washington tours the new American nation

    On this day in 1789, George Washington returns from his first presidential tour. Our first President thought it important to visit every part of the country during his time in office.   Surely a visit from the much-loved President would help unify the country under its new government and its new Constitution.   Washington left New York City on October 15, 1789, not too long after the first Congress adjourned on September 29. This first trip would weave its way through New England—he ultimately visited nearly sixty towns and hamlets!   Southern states would have their own, separate tour later, as would Rhode Island. This small, southern state, sometimes dubbed “Rogue’s Island,” would not ratify the Constitution until 1790, well after Washington’s New England tour was complete.   The new President was welcomed enthusiastically as he traveled. “[W]e passed through the Citizens classed in their different professions, and under their own banners,” Washington’s diary notes of Boston, “till we came to the State House; from which, across the Street, an Arch was thrown; in the front of which was this Inscription—“To the Man who unites all hearts” and on the other—“To Columbia’s favourite Son” . . . . This arch was handsomely ornamented, and over the Center of it a Canopy was erected 20 feet high with the American Eagle perched on the top. . . . . The Streets, the Doors, Windows & Tops of the Houses were crouded with well dressed Ladies and Gentlemen.”   As Washington continued his tour, he was able to observe the area’s various industries, factories and exports. For instance, he visited (and was impressed by) a sail factory. “They have 28 looms at work,” he wrote in his diary, “and 14 Girls spinning with Both hands, (the flax being fastened to their waste.) Children (girls) turn the wheels for them, and with this assistance each spinner can turn out 14 lbs of Thread pr. day when they stick to it.”   In the end, Washington was always happy to return home. His diary recounts that, on the morning of November 13, he began the last leg of his trip “as soon as we could see the Road . . . and three Oclock arrived at my House at New York where I found Mrs. Washington and the rest of the family all well.”   Unfortunately for him, there was a large crowd present. His diary simply states: “ts being Mrs. Washington’s Night to receive visits a pretty large Company of Ladies and Gentlemen were present.”   And such, really, was the story of Washington’s life. Always wanting peace and quiet (preferably at Mt. Vernon) but always surrounded by the Americans who loved him.


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  15. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: United States Marine Corps Birthday
    Happy birthday to the United States Marine Corps!
      On this day in 1775, the Continental Congress passed a resolution requiring that “two Battalions of Marines be raised” to support the recently organized Continental Navy. The resolution further stipulated that no person be enlisted, except “such as are good seamen, or so acquainted with maritime affairs as to be able to serve to advantage by sea, when required.”
     
    The first commanding officer of the Marines was Samuel Nicholas. He began recruiting new members immediately, and he reportedly turned to a tavern owner named Robert Mullan for help. As the story goes, the two men set up shop in Mullan’s tavern, the Tun Tavern. Thus, the tavern is considered by many to be the birthplace of the Marine Corps.
      I am so sorry to tell you that some dispute whether the tavern was **actually** used. Nicholas owned the Conestoga Wagon, which could just as easily have been used for recruiting purposes.
      The purpose of the Marines was to assist the Navy, which had been created about a month earlier. That congressional resolution had authorized the purchase of two warships. (The Navy had 5 ships by the end of the year.) The Navy, aided by the Marines, helped in the Revolution. Their task was a difficult one: The British Navy was the most powerful in the world. Nevertheless, within a few months of their creation, the Marines conducted their first successful amphibious landing. They managed to capture a supply of gunpowder at Fort Nassau in the Bahamas.
      According to the website of the U.S. Marines Corps, the new Navy “sent over fifty armed vessels to sea, fought numerous battles against the Royal Navy, and captured over 200 British merchant vessels.” One of these, of course, was John Paul Jones’s famous capture of the HMS Serapis.
      The Navy was demobilized and the Marines disbanded for a period of time after the Revolution. The Marines were reorganized when a permanent naval force was created by the U.S. Congress in 1798.
      Today, of course, the Marines are one of our most respected institutions. We are happy and proud to help celebrate the USMC’s birthday today.
      For all of you Marines reading this post: Happy birthday and thank you for your service!
  16. CaptObvious
    On this day in 1823, Thomas Jefferson writes a letter about the judiciary.   "At the establishment of our constitutions, the judiciary bodies were supposed to be the most helpless and harmless members of the government," he wrote. "Experience, however, soon showed in what way they were to become the most dangerous."   What did he think was at fault?   "[T]he insufficiency of the means provided for their removal," Jefferson concluded, "gave them a freehold and irresponsibility in office; that their decisions, seeming to concern individual suitors only, pass silent and unheeded by the public at large; that these decisions, nevertheless, become law by precedent, sapping, by little and little, the foundations of the constitution, and working its change by construction, before any one has perceived that that invisible and helpless worm has been busily employed in consuming its substance."   Yikes. Are we there yet? A little food for thought for your morning. Happy Halloween!



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  17. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: George Washington & his stepson
    On this day in 1781, George Washington’s stepson passes away. It had been less than three weeks since Washington’s victory over British General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown.
     
    What an odd mixture of emotions? Washington had been celebrating America’s miraculous victory after a long, brutal war. Now he was mourning the death of his only stepson.
     
    George Washington never had any children of his own. Historians speculate that an early case of smallpox, apparently followed by tuberculosis, may have left him infertile. Nevertheless, his marriage to Martha brought him two stepchildren: John “Jacky” Parke Custis and Martha “Patsy” Parke Custis.
     
    Jacky and Patsy were the very young heirs to their father’s extensive estate. Sadly, Patsy would die tragically early, leaving Jacky as the sole heir.
     
    Washington was cognizant of the great responsibility that would fall on Jacky’s shoulders when he came of age, and he ensured that his stepson received a good education. At 14 years of age, Washington described Jacky as a “boy of good genius . . . untainted in his morals, and of innocent manners.” However, he also seemed worried about the boy’s work ethic.
     
    He wrote to the Reverend Jonathan Boucher, head of a nearby school for boys, wondering if it “woud be convenient for you to add him to the number of your Pupils”? “[H]e is a promising boy,” Washington wrote Boucher, “the last of his Family—& will possess a very large Fortune—add to this my anxiety to make him fit for more useful purposes, than a horse Racer.”
     
    Jacky was a good-natured boy, but he never seemed to take his studies very seriously.
     
    “He does not much like Books,” Boucher sighed to Washington, “& yet I have been endeavouring to allure Him to it, by every Artifice I cou’d think of.”
     
    In the end, Jacky quit college early, marrying the young Eleanor Calvert when he was just 19 years old. Washington was resigned to the situation, but not exactly pleased.
     
    “I could have wish’d he had postpond entering into the engagement till his Studies were finishd,” he wrote his brother-in-law, “not that I have any objection to the Match, as she is a girl of exceeding good Character.”
     
    Nevertheless, the two were married, and they would have seven children during the course of their nearly 8-year marriage. Only four of these children would survive.
     
    Jacky made many financial decisions as an adult that would cause great strain on his family, and he often left Washington disappointed. Nevertheless, the two maintained a good relationship.
     
    “It pleased the Almighty to deprive me at a very early Period of Life of my Father,” Jacky wrote Washington not long after his marriage, “but I can not sufficiently adore His Goodness in sending Me so good a Guardian as you Sir; Few have experience’d such Care and Attention from real Parents as I have done. He best deserves the Name of Father who acts the Part of one.”
     
    For his part, Washington trusted Jacky to help him care for Martha during the Revolution. “[M]y great concern upon this occasion,” he wrote Jacky early in the war, “is the thoughts of leaving your Mother under the uneasiness which I know this affair will throw her into; I therefore hope, expect, & indeed have no doubt, of your using every means in your power to keep up her Spirits . . . .”
     
    Jacky was with Washington at Yorktown during the final weeks of the war. Unfortunately, he contracted camp fever and passed away soon afterwards. His death cast a pall over the final American victory.
     
    Yet another little-known sacrifice that the Father of our Country made during the American fight for liberty.


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  18. CaptObvious
    On this day in 1886, the Statue of Liberty is dedicated by President Grover Cleveland. It was then called Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World. It was a gift from the people of France.
    The idea for the statue first came from Edouard de Laboulaye, a French political thinker, in 1865. He proposed that a statue representing liberty be given to the United States for its centennial birthday. It took a few years to get
    started, but eventually a French sculptor, Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi, took on the task of creating the statue.
     
    Bartholdi had help from several architects and engineers. The statue was built in France and presented to the American minister there. Afterwards, it was taken apart and shipped to America in 350 separate parts.
     
    Would you believe that it took 214 crates to ship the Statue of Liberty across the Atlantic? Bartholdi traveled to America with his creation and oversaw its reassembly during 1886.
     
    At around this same time, a woman by the name of Emma Lazarus wrote a poem about the many immigrants who have come to our shores in search of freedom. “The New Colossus” was donated to an auction raising funds for
    construction of the Statue’s pedestal. Unfortunately, the poem did not raise as much money as auction planners had hoped. Along with a handful of other drawings and manuscripts, it sold for only $1,500.
     
    When Lazarus died a few years later, her poem was considered so inconsequential that it was not even mentioned in her obituary.
     
    The poem gained in prominence over time. Today, the closing lines of the poem have come to hold great meaning, especially for the many immigrants who came to America in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
    In 1903, the poem was inscribed on a plaque and affixed to the statue’s pedestal. The poem closes:
      The Statue of Liberty was designated as a National Monument in 1924 during the Calvin Coolidge administration.
     
    Oddly, you have to look pretty hard on the official Statue of Liberty website to find the text of the poem, or even very much discussion of it.
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  19. CaptObvious
    At about this time in 1876, the presidential election of 1876 was supposed to be decided. Except it wasn’t. Instead, disputes over the election outcome would continue all the way through March.
      It must have been ugly—but it could have been even worse.
      The Electoral College helped the country that year in an unexpected way: It isolated election disputes to only four states. Without the Electoral College, every vote in every state could have been contested. Would things have spun completely out of control?
      They truly could have. In those post-Civil War years, the nation was starkly divided between North and South. Many Southerners were still chafing under the restrictions of Reconstruction. Fraud and dishonesty were too pervasive. Black voters were sometimes denied access to the polls. At least one study has concluded that a “fair and free election” would have turned out differently in 1876.
      In other words, the scene was set for a hotly contested political contest.
      Republicans had nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, the Governor of Ohio. Meanwhile, Democrats had nominated Samuel J. Tilden, the Governor of New York.
      The results on Election Day couldn’t have made anyone happy. Hayes appeared to have about 250,000 fewer popular votes, nationwide, than Tilden; however, the all-important electoral vote was still up for grabs. Twenty electors were disputed in four states. In Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina, state officials couldn’t agree on who had won. Thus, multiple slates of electors were submitted from each of those states. One electoral vote in Oregon was also disputed. Hayes needed all 20 of these electors to win. Tilden needed just one.
      Can you imagine what CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC would do with such a situation today?!?
      Americans in 1876 didn’t have the benefits of such modern technology, of course. Instead, they waited for weeks to see which candidate would be declared the victor. The situation prompted plenty of political grandstanding!
    The Senate was then controlled by Republicans, while the House was controlled by Democrats. No one knew what to do about the conflicting sets of election returns, but Congress finally created a (constitutionally questionable) Electoral Commission. That committee was supposed to be evenly divided, with seven Republicans, seven Democrats, and one independent Supreme Court Justice. It didn’t turn out that way. Instead, Independent Justice David Davis was unexpectedly elected to the Senate by the Illinois state legislature. His spot on the commission was taken by Justice Joseph Bradley, a Republican appointee.
      Unsurprisingly, the Republican-controlled Commission soon decided all 20 disputed electoral votes in favor of Hayes, throwing the election to him.
    Naturally, Democrats were upset, and a filibuster nearly sidetracked congressional acceptance of the Commission’s findings. Eventually, though, Congress brokered a compromise: Republicans indicated that they would be willing to bring Reconstruction to an end. In return, southern congressmen began withdrawing their objections.
    Hayes was finally declared the winner of the election at about 4:00 a.m. on March 2. Of course, action came about mostly because Congress had its back up against a wall: Only two days then remained in President Ulysses S. Grant’s term.
    After all the turmoil, Rutherford B. Hayes was finally sworn in as the country’s 19th President on March 4, 1877.
  20. CaptObvious
    On this day in 1823, Israel Bissell passes away. Was he the real hero hiding behind the oft-told story of Paul Revere? Some people believe so. In reality, it’s hard to be certain about too much when it comes to Israel Bissell’s life and daring ride. Indeed, when push comes to shove, even his identity is in question. We all know the story of Paul Revere’s midnight ride, of course. Revere rode to Lexington late on the night of April 18, carrying a warning that the British were coming. But Revere was not the only rider that night. The colonists had devised an elaborate system designed to carry information quickly. They didn’t have telegraphs, telephones, or the Internet, but they had post riders. They used shotgun blasts or lights to signal messages over distances. Two riders, William Dawes and Samuel Prescott, accompanied Revere on part of his ride. Others rode as well. As the story goes, one of these riders was Israel Bissell. Legend has it that Bissell rode 345 miles from Watertown to Philadelphia, raising people with a cry: “To arms, to arms, the war has begun.” It took him more than four days! One of his horses collapsed and died, but he finally made it. Some versions of the story have Bissell telling the old military hero Israel Putnam about the British invasion. Old Put reportedly left for Boston immediately upon hearing the news, even leaving his plow standing in the middle of a field. As Bissell rode, he carried a letter, noting that the “bearer Mr. Israel Bissell is charged to alarm the country quite to Connecticut & all persons are desired to furnish him with fresh horses as they may be needed. . . .” Or, at least, that’s what one copy of the letter said. The original is gone. And therein lies a bit of the mystery! All that remains now are the copies of the letter that were transcribed at various stops between Watertown and Philadelphia. Bissell’s name does not appear continuously in these copies. Errors were made in transcription, so some letters change his first name to “Isaac” or “Tryal.” Others change his last name to something like “Russell.” Did one man really ride the entire 345 miles? Or did the journey work more like a normal post, with Bissell doing the first ride and others taking up subsequent legs of the trip? Of course, if Bissell wasn’t riding the final legs, it would explain why no one caught and corrected the transcription errors in his name. Confusing matters further, the Massachusetts House of Representatives later approved a payment to Isaac Bissell of Suffield, Connecticut. Isaac Bissell had written a note asking for it, stating that “you may Remember when Lexinton Fite was you gave me an Express to Cary to Hartford in Connecticut which I did. . . . I think I Earn my money.” Which Bissell began the ride? In real life, both an Isaac and an Israel Bissell lived. Both men were Patriots who supported the cause, briefly serving in George Washington’s army. Israel Bissell retired to be a sheep farmer, eventually passing away on October 24, 1823. The marker on his grave describes him as “Post rider from Watertown to Philadelphia alerting towns of British attack at Lexington April 19, 1775.” In the meantime, Isaac Bissell became a blacksmith. He passed away in 1822 and lies in an unadorned grave. Was he the real post rider? The answer may forever remain a mystery. But the situation illustrates another truth: Unknown men and women performed many acts of bravery during America’s fight for freedom. We owe a debt of gratitude to these unknown heroes as well.



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  21. CaptObvious
    On this day in 1797, Old Ironsides is launched! “Old Ironsides” is the nickname that was given to the USS Constitution, one of the first six frigates built for the U.S. Navy during the early years of our country. Initially, the frigate was used in the Quasi War with France and the Barbary Wars, but it is perhaps most famous for its performance during the War of 1812. USS Constitution defeated four English warships. A former captain of USS Constitution, Tyrone G. Martin, later wrote a history of the ship. He describes the effect of these victories: “The losses suffered by the Royal Navy were no more than pinpricks to that great fleet: They neither impaired its battle readiness nor disrupted the blockade of American ports. . . . What Constitution and her sister [ship] did accomplish was to uplift American morale spectacularly and, in the process, end forever the myth that the Royal Navy was invincible.” The ship earned its nickname during a battle fought on August 19, 1812. On that day, Constitution encountered HMS Guerriere off the coast of Nova Scotia. The two ships got within about 50 yards of each other and began firing their cannons. Constitution was causing great damage to the British ship, even as the British cannon balls were bouncing off the hard oak sides of Constitution. One of the American crewmen saw what was happening and was heard to yell: “Huzza! Her sides are made of iron!” The nickname “Old Ironsides” was born! The British surrendered roughly one hour after the attack began. Guerriere was badly damaged and had to be sunk after the battle. The British captain later reported: “The Guerriere was so cut up, that all attempts to get her in would have been useless. As soon as the wounded were got out of her, they set her on fire; and I feel it my duty to state that the conduct of [American] Captain Hull and his Officers to our Men has been that of a brave Enemy.” If the victory provided a psychological boost to Americans, it seems that it was equally demoralizing to the British. The London Times mournfully reported: “Never before in the history of the world did an English frigate strike to an American.” Old Ironsides has been preserved and can still be seen at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Massachusetts. It’s well worth the visit.


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  22. CaptObvious
    On this day in 1898, an American flag is raised over Puerto Rico. The island was no longer a Spanish possession. It was under the control of the United States. Did you ever stop to think about how Puerto Rico became a part of the United States? It all started with Spain. And Christopher Columbus, who landed on the island during his second trip to the Americas. Spain remained a major power on this side of the Atlantic for centuries. But by 1825, it was beginning to lose its grasp on much of its territory overseas. Nevertheless, it still retained Cuba and Puerto Rico. On the other side of the Pacific, it retained islands in and around the Philippines. By the 1890s, even those interests were in trouble. Cubans were fighting for their independence. Puerto Ricans were split between those who wanted autonomy and those who wanted to join the United States. Filipinos, too, were chafing under Spanish rule. Meanwhile, American trade interests were being affected, and many Americans sympathized with the plight of Cubans. It hadn’t been *that* long since the American Revolution, and many felt they saw similarities between the two fights for independence. Tensions between Spain and the United States began to increase. It didn’t take much to light a blaze in that tense atmosphere! On February 15, 1898, USS Maine exploded while docked in Havana Harbor. Many Americans immediately suspected Spanish involvement, and a Naval Court of Inquiry seemed to confirm these suspicions when it reported that Maine was destroyed by a submerged mine. A few weeks later, President William McKinley sent a message to Congress. “The present condition of affairs in Cuba,” he wrote, “is a constant menace to our peace and entails upon this Government an enormous expense.” He asked “Congress to authorize and empower the President to take measures to secure a full and final termination of hostilities between the Government of Spain and the people of Cuba . . . and to use the military and naval forces of the United States as may be necessary for these purposes.” Congress complied. It approved a resolution recognizing Cuban independence and demanding that Spain do the same. Congress also clarified that the United States had no intention of annexing Cuba. Spain promptly severed diplomatic relations. Future Secretary of State John Hay would describe the war that followed as a “splendid little war.” Americans won an early naval battle at Manila Bay. In July, the Battle of San Juan Hill was fought—with the well-known assistance of Teddy Roosevelt and his Rough Riders (pictured)! Unconditional surrender was soon made in Cuba and Puerto Rico. For its part, Guam surrendered with little fanfare. On August 12, a ceasefire was signed. Peace negotiations began soon thereafter, and a treaty was signed in December. By the terms of the treaty, Cuban independence was recognized. Puerto Rico and Guam were ceded to the United States, and the Philippines was sold to the U.S. for $20 million. In a separate but simultaneous move, the United States annexed Hawaii. Today, of course, Puerto Rico is a United States territory. It never became a state, as Hawaii did. Should it become one? The question has been controversial in the past and no doubt will remain so.


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  23. CaptObvious
    On this day in 1781, British General Lord Charles Cornwallis raises a white flag of surrender to American General George Washington. An official surrender would come on October 19, effectively ending the American Revolution. Americans had won an impossible victory! They had been fighting for 6.5 long years—ever since the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775. Their revolution was fought against a very powerful British military. Often, the Americans had survived on sheer guts and perseverance. They lacked funds. They lacked military supplies. They suffered through long, cold winters. They lost soldiers to small pox. Sometimes, even their basic needs—food, shoes and clothes—went unmet. Through it all, Washington held the army together. Yes, he made strategic errors, and he has been criticized for it. There are undoubtedly military leaders with better qualifications or better tactical skills. However, few men could have done what Washington did as a leader. Washington held his army together, through all their difficulties, through sheer strength of will. His men loved, revered, and trusted him. For Americans, he was the right man in the right place at the right time. Washington himself viewed the victory as a miracle. The day after Cornwallis's surrender, he issued the following general orders to his troops: "Divine Service is to be performed tomorrow in the several Brigades or Divisions. The Commander in Chief earnestly recommends that the troops not on duty should universally attend with that seriousness of Deportment and gratitude of Heart which the recognition of such reiterated and astonishing interposition's of Providence demand of us." Today, then, is the anniversary of a miracle. Let's celebrate and defend the freedom that was achieved for us that day.
  24. CaptObvious
    So to start this content is not of my own. I am simply re-posting someone's work who I find to be awesome... Its American history. So I hope you enjoy.

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  25. CaptObvious
    This Day in History: The "non-signers" of the Constitution

    On this day in 1819, a delegate to the Constitutional Convention passes away. Caleb Strong of Massachusetts attended the Convention, but he never signed the Constitution.
     
    Have you ever thought about the men who were appointed to serve at the Convention, but who failed to sign the document?
     
    Roughly three dozen men fall into this category of “non-signer” of the Constitution. Of these, only a small handful deliberately rejected the substance of the document. Others didn’t sign, but for different reasons.
     
    Washington as Statesman at the Constitutional Convention, by Junius Brutus Stearns
    For starters, nearly 20 men failed to attend the Convention—at all! The historical record leaves us guessing at some of the reasons, but given the difficulties of travel in those days, perhaps a few “no-shows” is unsurprising. Moreover, historians know that at least a few of these men had health problems that prevented travel. Others had business conflicts. One man declined to serve because he worried about catching smallpox in Philadelphia!
     
    So what happened to everyone else? Why didn’t they sign?
     
    A handful of men arrived at the Convention and participated in the discussions, but then had to leave partway through the summer. Men such as Oliver Ellsworth (CT) left early for personal or business reasons, but later became advocates for the Constitution. Similarly, Virginia delegate George Wythe had to return home because his wife was in poor health, but he later supported the Constitution.
     
    One man stayed to the end, but refused to sign, Edmund Randolph (VA) was worried that the Constitution wouldn’t be approved by the requisite nine states. In the closing days of the Convention, he announced that he would not sign the document.
     
    Randolph ultimately changed his mind and ended up supporting the Constitution, but a handful of others never could get comfortable.
     
    Elbridge Gerry (MA) and George Mason (VA) participated fully in the Convention, but they flatly refused to sign the Constitution. Among other things, they worried about the lack of a Bill of Rights.
    New York delegates John Lansing and Robert Yates took a different tack. They got disgusted and left the Convention early. They feared that the national government being created was too powerful.
    A national government, they explained to the Governor of New York, “must unavoidably, in a short time, be productive of the destruction of [citizens’ civil liberty], by reason of the extensive territory of the United States, the dispersed situation of its inhabitants, and the insuperable difficulty of controlling or counteracting the views of a set of men . . . possessed of all the powers of government . . . .”
    John Mercer and Luther Martin of Maryland seemed to agree with much of this. They departed early in protest, fearing that states’ rights were not being sufficiently protected. Martin also had other concerns: For instance, he thought the Constitution should take a harder line on slavery.
     
    What are we to do with all this information today?
     
    Obviously, some of these delegates later had their concerns assuaged: A Bill of Rights was ratified and added to our Constitution. Yet other delegates doubtless continued to feel justified in their doubts.
    Nevertheless, it’s worth noting that these delegates were in the minority. Most signed the Constitution, apparently agreeing with a sentiment expressed by James Wilson of Pennsylvania.
     
    “[W]hen I reflect how widely men differ in their opinions,” Wilson observed, “and that every man [and state] has an equal pretension to assert his own, I am satisfied that any thing nearer to perfection could not have been accomplished . . . . it is the best form of government which has ever been offered to the world.”



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